The place of new technologies in the history of urban and architectural development
Globalization and the sharing of knowledge through social networking sites have accelerated the development of new technologies such as generative AI, 3D printers for construction, and drones.
In this section, we will review the history of urban and architectural transition and organize how technology has affected cities and architecture in the process.
Based on this review, we will examine how newly emerging technologies can be utilized in human society, cities, and architecture in the future.
Overview of cities and architecture in each period
The period before the birth of humans (before 8 million years B.C.)
- Organisms evolved in response to their environment, giving rise to a variety of species.
- It is estimated that humans (Homo sapiens) differentiated from chimpanzees around 8 million years ago(Diogo et al., 2017).
- It is common for humans as well as other organisms to build nests for their own habitation.
Bird nests
Chimpanzee nest
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jun/21/chimpanzees-bed-sleep-humankind-evolution-bed
Hunter-gatherer period (8 million years B.C. - 10,000 years B.C.)
- Hunters and gatherers began to live in larger groups as tools and complex verbal communication became possible.
- They catch animals and fish, and gather nuts and shellfish.
Early Paleolithic tools dating back 400,000 A.D. and traces of the spread of fire have been found at Terra Amata
https://nice.city-life.fr/Visiter/Nice/Archeologie/659/Musee-Terra-Amata?lang=en
Agro-pastoralist period (10,000 B.C. and later)
- Food production technologies such as agriculture and cattle raising are invented.
- Agriculture developed, making it possible to grow vegetables, grains, fruits, and other plants to supply food.
- Livestock (cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) were raised to provide dairy products and meat.
- Livelihoods dependent on agriculture and pastoralism took hold, and settled life became common.
Skara Brae, a stone Neolithic settlement located in Scotland
https://www.northlinkferries.co.uk/orkney-blog/skara-brae/
Civilization of the Four Great Rivers (3000 B.C. - 2000 B.C.)
- Civilizations developed near major rivers.
- Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Indus, and Yellow River civilizations.
Ur (3800 - 500 BC)
- Mesopotamian civilization
- Ur (3800 - 500 B.C.) City by Sumerians
- The city was surrounded by a moat wall due to the lack of natural barriers.
- Dwellings are mud bricks and mud plaster
- Almost all foundations are extant
- Ziggurat: Temple dedicated to the patron god of Ur, built in the 3rd Dynasty of Ur (2200 BC)
- Mesopotamian civilization was destroyed in the 16th century when Babylon was invaded by the Hittites, who used iron weapons.
- Urbanization of a small area of clan communities
Ziggurat
https://www.britannica.com/place/Ur
https://www.worldhistory.org/ur/
https://routledgetextbooks.com/textbooks/9780415498647/chapter-2.php
https://members.ancient-origins.net/articles/ur
Foundation
https://www.heritagedaily.com/2020/10/the-ancient-city-of-ur/135753
Confucian conception of a city
- The city is square, 3.9 km (9 ri) on each side
- Three gates on each of the four sides, 12 gates in total
- Three roads leading to the gates, one each in the north, south, east, and west, with a roadway in the center and a pedestrian walkway on both sides (for men on the right and women on the left), 16m wide
- Surrounded by city walls
- Royal palace in the center
- Urban structure based on the Jangbang system, the urban concept of the Zhouli (BC800-BC400), a Confucian scripture.
- Suzaku-daero (Great Suzaku Road) is located in the center of the city from north to south.
- It was considered most functional to place a grid of roads in the north-south, east-west, and west-south directions.
- Similar urban structures have been introduced to the Korean Peninsula and Japan
http://blog.livedoor.jp/funoshuji/archives/6834204.html
Sanrei Diagram (ideal city model) described in Zhourei, the oldest Chinese technical book
http://www.bjyzwh.com/newsitem/276818921
Chang'an (1045 BC - 771 BC), built according to the Confucian concept of a city
Chang'an (1045 B.C. - 771 B.C.), built according to the Confucian conception of the city.
https://kknews.cc/history/pvr6nap.html
Present-day Chang'an (1045 BC - 771 BC)
https://lw.news.cn/2023-05/15/c_1310718851.htm
Agora (political meeting place and marketplace)
- Agora, a political meeting place and marketplace built near the ancient Greek city of Acropolis
https://classicalwisdom.com/science/architecture/ancient-agora/
Roman and Greek colonial cities (700 - 500 BC)
- Rome and Greece expanded their colonial cities, called civitas and polis, respectively.
- They conquered enemy cities and redistributed land and built additions based on the original urban structure.
- The foundation of many Western European cities such as London, Paris, Barcelona, etc. are Roman colonies
- Rectangular city walls
- Gates were built where north-south and east-west roads intersected the city walls
- Main roads connected to other colonial cities
- The development and spread of iron tools (600 BC - 500 BC) increased agricultural productivity
Extent of the Roman Empire in AD 117
https://imperiumromanum.pl/en/article/history-of-rome/
Florentia (59 BC - 6 BC)
- Roman colony that was the origin of Florence
- As population grew, the walls were moved outward
- A grid plan was adopted to facilitate planned growth
https://eaglesanddragonspublishing.com/florentia-the-roman-origins-of-florence/
https://www.spellbindingitaly.com/en/article/52-discover-roman-florence
https://eaglesanddragonspublishing.com/florentia-the-roman-origins-of-florence/
Turin
- Roman colonial city
Roman period
Lattice plan
End of 16th century
Invention of gunpowder led to the establishment of earthworks and ridge walls where new weapons were placed
Early 17th century
Around 1670
Expansion while equipped with the artistic style of the Baroque period.
End of 17th century
Expansion with the Baroque artistic style
Medieval Europe (12th - 13th centuries)
- Improvements in weapons, such as the invention of the crossbow, made the city walls sturdier, and cities were built on hills and islands for defense.
- By the end of the 15th century, cannon balls changed from stone to iron balls and gunpowder was used, making high walls unnecessary, and they were removed in the Baroque period of the 18th century.
- Strengthening of leadership through religion
- Churches and monasteries (rather than temples.)
- Street network also irregular, arranged in a labyrinthine pattern
- Architecture Romanesque and Gothic
- Dense growth without moving the walls outward as population grows
- Overcrowding, unsanitary conditions, and pestilence were problems
- The Ottoman invasion of the Byzantine Empire led to the exile of Greek intellectuals to Italy, and the beginning of the Renaissance in Italy in the 14th-16th centuries, a movement to revive ancient Roman and Greek culture, led to the conception of the geometric ideal city.
Carcassonne
- City in France
- Medieval fortress
- Located on a hill
- Registered as a World Heritage Site
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcassonne
Modern city (19th to early 20th centuries) due to the Industrial Revolution
- The Industrial Revolution of the late 18th century brought a shift from manual to machine-based mass production.
- London's population grew from 870,000 in 1801 to 6.5 million in 1900.
- The city also expanded with the development of transportation: horse-drawn carriages gave way to railroads, and sailing ships to steamships.
- The French Revolution at the end of the 18th century promoted democracy.
- The number of colonial cities, which had existed since the Greek and Roman empires, increased; for example, the British established colonies in various parts of the country.
- The water supply and sewage systems were not built in time, and unsanitary conditions became a problem, leading to an epidemic of cholera in British cities from 1830 to 1832.
- Mass production of iron and glass became possible, and buildings were built using iron and glass.
https://industrializationofbritain.wordpress.com/
1840
1860
1880
1900
1914
1929
Changes in the City of London
A cast iron and plate glass structure built in London to host the Great Exhibition of 1851.
https://www.thecollector.com/what-was-the-crystal-palace-london/
Public health laws, building bylaws, and housing laws are enacted (mid-19th century).
- Demand for housing increases, overcrowding becomes a serious problem, and public health and road maintenance become an issue Following the start of the Industrial Revolution in the United Kingdom, similar problems were caused in other countries in Europe and the United States.
- The Public Health Act of 1848 was enacted in the U.K. Building bylaws provided zoning control over street clearance, wall lines, building heights, etc. Water and sewage systems were established.
- Water and sewage systems were established, and factory and residential areas were separated.
- Legislation spreads to Germany, France, and the United States.
- Neighborhood residential zoning laws are created.
Cities developed through ordinances such as the Public Sanitation Law
Spread of automobiles (early 20th century)
- Automobiles became widespread as conveyor-belt mass production made them inexpensive to provide.
- The diffusion of automobiles made it possible for people to live far from urban centers.
- The road network was expanded and highways were built.
- Large shopping malls and suburban stores increased, which also affected the layout of the city's commercial areas.
- Homes were required to have garages and parking lots.
- This led to increased air and noise pollution, and green space and traffic management became important issues in urban planning.
Ford Model T
https://www.motorcities.org/story-of-the-week/2019/the-ford-model-t-was-an-iconic-automobile
Large suburban shopping complex
https://www.ikea.com/my/en/stores/damansara/
Invention and spread of the airplane (mid-20th century)
- Airplanes connected cities around the world in a short time, and cities emerged as hubs for international business, trade, and tourism.
- Many people began to travel by air, and cities and regions became international tourist destinations.
- Large airports became facilities that required special considerations in urban planning, such as noise problems and safety.
The Wright Flyer, the first manned flight
https://www.wright-brothers.org/Information_Desk/Just_the_Facts/Airplanes/Wright_Airplanes.htm
Airports
Emergence of the Internet (end of the 20th century)
- Smart cities emerged to efficiently manage urban infrastructure such as transportation, energy, and public services.
- Remote work, where people can work from anywhere, became possible, thereby reducing traffic congestion in cities and easing the concentration of population in urban centers.
- The easy distribution of information via the Internet has increased economic and cultural exchange between urban and rural areas.
- Many services, such as entertainment, education, and health care, are now offered online, and urban lifestyles have changed dramatically.
New Technologies (21st century and beyond)
AI
- A digital twin emerged that reproduced real cities in cyberspace and enabled a variety of analyses.
- Data collected via the Internet and IoT is optimized by AI to improve the efficiency of city resources (power, environmental impact, etc.).
https://www.autodesk.com/design-make/articles/what-is-a-digital-twin
Drones.
- Enables unmanned logistics.
- Expected to improve logistics efficiency and alleviate driver shortages.
Amazon drone delivery
https://www.businessinsider.com/amazon-works-with-caa-on-high-speed-drone-delivery-in-the-uk-2019-5
Metaverse, VR, AR
- Digital platforms that enable social interaction, economic activity, and entertainment in virtual spaces.
- Architecture and public spaces in real urban spaces can be reproduced in the metaverse, which is expected to improve the efficiency of urban planning and construction processes.
- Education, work, entertainment, and communication can be provided in the metaverse, potentially reducing the need for physical travel.
- Citizens could be more actively involved in urban planning through the display and discussion of urban models in virtual space.
- Increased demand for real estate and space in the metaverse could create new activity in the real-world real estate market.
Cities built within the metaverse
https://datatechvibe.com/news/the-sandbox-to-develop-metaverse-city-in-dubai/
Construction 3D printers
- 3D printers can be used to build houses and structures.
- Enables construction work to proceed efficiently by reducing construction time and labor costs.
Houses made with 3D printers
Private Space Passenger Aircraft
- It is expected that private citizens will be able to travel to space at low cost.
- Potential to expand the number of places to live, including planets other than Earth.
SpaceX aims to reduce space transportation costs to enable colonization of Mars.
https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/russian-cosmonaut-hitching-ride-with-spacex-part-next-space-station-crew-2022-10-05/
How new technologies have changed cities and architecture
So far, we have reviewed history and organized how technology has been used.
In this section, we will examine how new technologies have changed cities and architecture from a general perspective.
We will also organize how new technologies will be utilized in human society, cities, and architecture in the future.
One of the main elements in the definition of living organisms is self-replication: living organisms, including humans, work together with their own families, communities to which they belong, nations, and other closely related people to protect and expand their own genes in order to pass them on.
If we assume that the essential goal of human beings (organisms) is to increase the prosperity and survival rate of life, humanity, nation, community, and family, that is, a population that can live together, the components can be expressed simply by the following formula.
Increase in the number of people who can live together
= (existing population + social population) x (1 + total fertility rate) x years of residence and survival x degree of shared values
Based on our history, it is believed that humankind is consciously or unconsciously taking actions to increase this number.
Here, social population represents the population that flows into one's own region from other regions or countries; in the past, social population has been increased by invading other countries or by creating attractive jobs; in recent years, the Internet and the metaverse have made it possible to increase the real social population (population living in cooperation), independent of the physical environment.
The total fertility rate is the number of children born to women; the total fertility rate is expected to increase due to lower living costs, such as housing acquisition costs, and higher incomes; recent resource depletion issues related to sustainable development may also be relevant, as sustainable development can help avoid increased living costs due to resource scarcity.
The number of years of residence or survival represents the period during which the current population can survive; the more these years increase, the more the population can be sustained; defense against invasion by other countries, sanitation and infectious disease control measures, etc., can increase the number of years.
The degree of shared values indicates the strength of cooperation among people living together; the greater the degree of shared values, the greater the efficiency of actions to support each other; this can be improved by education, language, religion, etc.
↑ Relationship between society, cities, architecture and technology
Conclusion
In this section, we have reviewed the history of urban and architectural changes and organized how technology has influenced cities and architecture in the course of these changes.
As a result, we believe that people have progressed toward the prosperity (increased survival) of communities such as families and nations, that is, toward increasing the number of people who can live together. Important factors include social population, total fertility rate, years of residence and survival, and shared values, and new technologies and knowledge are thought to contribute to one of these factors.
In the future, it is expected that emerging technologies will be used to position themselves as contributing to these important factors, and will be introduced into human society, cities, and architecture.